Some of these areas include the thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the pons. These kinds of schedules are common for individuals working in health care professions and service industries, and they are associated with persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation that can make someone more prone to making mistakes on the job (Gold et al., 1992; Presser, 1995). If you get peritoneal dialysis, peritonitis symptoms also may include: Cloudy dialysis fluid. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013). These synthetic drugs are so potent that even small doses can cause overdose and death. Homeostasis refers to the body's need to reach and maintain a certain state of equilibrium. At rather low doses, alcohol use is associated with feelings of euphoria. Signs of inflammation help healthcare providers in making a diagnosis. Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. Abnormal Motor Behavior. Its simply that they feel so overwhelmed and stressed that they cannot fall asleep or stay asleep. Many of these drugs act as agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system. Freud made distinctions between the manifest content and the latent content of dreams. In addition, the appearance of K-complexes is often associated with stage 2 sleep. In contrast, a person who haspsychological dependencehas an emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve psychological distress. Stage 1 sleepis a transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep, the period during which we drift off to sleep. While we have discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated with adequate amounts of sleep. In other words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder. Guilleminault et al. In addition, sleep deprivation often results in depression-like symptoms. A person withrestless leg syndromehas uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. After dinner, he prepared some materials to use in leading a church youth group the following morning, and then he attempted to repair the familys swimming pool pump before retiring to bed. Caffeine is another stimulant drug. High doses of MDMA can cause brain toxicity and death. Which of the following is true regarding patient adherence: d - all of the above (a - the average adherence rate for taking medication to treat acute illness is about 67%, b - adherence to taking medicine . Heroin users often shoot the drug directly into their veins. While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many important things going on around us. Given that college students are notorious for suffering from significant sleep debt (Hicks, Fernandez, & Pelligrini, 2001; Hicks, Johnson, & Pelligrini, 1992; Miller, Shattuck, & Matsangas, 2010), chances are you and your classmates deal with sleep debt-related issues on a regular basis. These drugs promote increased levels of neural activity. The freebase version of cocaine, known as crack, is a potent, smokable version of the drug. As you have learned, drugs can act as agonists or antagonists of a given neurotransmitter system. Rapid eye movement (REM)sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. (credit sleeping: modification of work by Ryan Vaarsi). Vaping uses battery-powered devices, sometimes called e-cigarettes, that deliver liquid nicotine and flavorings as a vapor. As an individual continues through stage 1 sleep, there is an increase in theta wave activity. Drug withdrawal is usually an aversive experience, and it can be a life-threatening process in individuals who have a long history of very high doses of alcohol and/or barbiturates. For example, a person may work from 7:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. on Monday, 3:00 a.m. to 11:00 a.m. on Tuesday, and 11:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. on Wednesday. Central sleep apnea is caused by a failure of the brain to activate the muscles of breathing during sleep. typically follow the example of their parents more than their friends. Comparative research indicates, however, that the relationship that exists between predatory risk and sleep is very complex and equivocal. The typical positive symptoms of schizophrenia , such as hallucinatory experiences or fixed delusional beliefs, tend to be very upsetting and disruptivenot a positive experience at all for you or someone you care about who is experiencing them. Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple brain areas acting in conjunction with one another. The chapter will close with discussions of altered states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and meditation. Scott Falater had a history of regular episodes of sleepwalking as a child, and he had even behaved violently toward his sister once when she tried to prevent him from leaving their home in his pajamas during a sleepwalking episode. As we move intostage 2 sleep, the body goes into a state of deep relaxation. As already mentioned, the hypothalamus contains the SCNthe biological clock of the bodyin addition to other nuclei that, in conjunction with the thalamus, regulate slow-wave sleep. Our sleep-wake cycle, which is linked to our environments natural light-dark cycle, is perhaps the most obvious example of a circadian rhythm, but we also have daily fluctuations in heart rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, and body temperature. For instance, have you ever daydreamed while driving home from work or school without really thinking about the drive itself? Generally, treatment for night terrors is unnecessary unless there is some underlying medical or psychological condition that is contributing to the night terrors (Mayo Clinic, n.d.). One way that this happens involves traveling across multiple time zones. Some people also experience altered states of consciousness through meditation, hypnosis, or alcohol and other drugs. A neighbor called the police after witnessing Falater standing over his wifes body before dragging her into the pool. As scary as it sounds, many sleep researchers believe that homicidal sleepwalking is possible in individuals suffering from the types of sleep disorders described below (Broughton et al., 1994; Cartwright, 2004; Mahowald, Schenck, & Cramer Bornemann, 2005; Pressman, 2007). It is quite possible that sleep serves no single universally adaptive function, and different species have evolved different patterns of sleep in response to their unique evolutionary pressures. Psychological dependence on these drugs is also possible. 2. High doses increase agitation, paranoia, can cause hallucinations. It seems like everyone knows a friend, family member, or neighbor who has died of an overdose. Historically, hypnosis has been viewed with some suspicion because of its portrayal in popular media and entertainment (Figure 4.20). Biological rhythmsare internal rhythms of biological activity. Case fatality rates have varied from 25% to 90 . the ability to spend time, good time with them when youre not feeling absolutely exhausted . Interestingly, individuals who have increased levels of alpha brain wave activity (more often associated with wakefulness and transition into stage 1 sleep) during stage 3 often report that they do not feel refreshed upon waking, regardless of how long they slept (Stone, Taylor, McCrae, Kalsekar, & Lichstein, 2008). Unfortunately, this is not the case; however, several hypotheses have been proposed to explain the function of sleep. d. the gender gap between male and female life expectancy has increased. Although she had been taking a prescription antidepressant, her symptoms of depression continued to worsen and she began to suffer physically, displaying significant warning signs of cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Many college students struggle getting the recommended 79 hours of sleep each night. If you cannot fall asleep, leave your bed and do something else until you feel tired again. Manifest contentis the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. Unlike the other sleep disorders described in this section, a person withnarcolepsycannot resist falling asleep at inopportune times. In general, these drugs are not thought to possess the same sort of abuse potential as other classes of drugs discussed in this section. For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. AK-complexis a very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli. These include daydreaming, intoxication, and unconsciousness due to anesthesia. Another theory regarding why we sleep involves sleeps importance for cognitive function and memory formation (Rattenborg, Lesku, Martinez-Gonzalez, & Lima, 2007). Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. Cognitive-behavioral therapy has been demonstrated to be quite effective in treating insomnia (Savard, Simard, Ivers, & Morin, 2005; Williams, Roth, Vatthauer, & McCrae, 2013). As discussed by Siegel (2008), a definition of sleep must also include mention of the interplay of the circadian and homeostatic mechanisms that regulate sleep. It may seem counterintuitive that stimulant medications are prescribed to treat a disorder that involves hyperactivity, but the therapeutic effect comes from increases in neurotransmitter activity within certain areas of the brain associated with impulse control. Upon a search of the premises, police found blood-stained clothes and a bloody knife in the trunk of Falaters car, and he had blood stains on his neck. . Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. Instead, sleep is composed of several different stages that can be differentiated from one another by the patterns of brain wave activity that occur during each stage. Some can cause heightened sensitivity to physical stimuli. It is administered alone or in conjunction with doses of melatonin (the hormone secreted by the pineal gland). An important difference between mood disorders and normal mood fluctuation is: A) the particular medication used to treat the problem. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. Infants should not have caps placed on their heads when put down to sleep in order to prevent overheating, and people in the childs household should abstain from smoking in the home. While hypnosis may be useful in enhancing memory or a skill, such enhancements are very modest in nature (Raz, 2011). Delusions. During periods of sleepwalking, sleepers often have their eyes open, but they are not responsive to attempts to communicate with them. Alcohol, barbiturates (e.g., secobarbital, pentobarbital), Benzodiazepines (e.g., Xanax). For example, people who undergo chemotherapy will often be prescribed marijuana to stimulate their appetites and prevent excessive weight loss resulting from the side effects of chemotherapy treatment. Therefore, no movement of voluntary muscles occurs during REM sleep in a normal individual; REM sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone. It is not uncommon for people suffering from undiagnosed or untreated sleep apnea to fear that their careers will be affected by the lack of sleep, illustrated by this statement from another patient, Im in a job where theres a premium on being mentally alert. Cocaine can be taken in multiple ways. Two sleeping children are depicted in this 1895 oil painting titled. One complete menstrual cycle takes about 28 daysa lunar monthbut many biological cycles are much shorter. The amount of sleep we get varies across the lifespan. Sleep is characterized by certain patterns of activity of the brain that can be visualized using electroencephalography (EEG), and different phases of sleep can be differentiated using EEG as well. Recommendations like these have helped to decrease the number of infant deaths from SIDS in recent years (Mitchell, 2009; Task Force on Sudden Infant Death Syndrome, 2011). When we do this, we often experience jet lag. The pituitary gland also secretes growth hormone, during sleep, which plays a role in physical growth and maturation as well as other metabolic processes (Bartke, Sun, & Longo, 2013). Primary signs and symptoms of Ebola often include some or several of the following: Fever. Cognitive-behavioral therapyis a type of psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors. (credit: Laurie Avocado). Acetylcholine functions as a neurotransmitter in motor neurons. These same women were awakened during REM sleep in order to provide a detailed account of their dream content. These symptoms include fatigue, sluggishness, irritability, and insomnia (i.e., a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month's time) (Roth, 2007). Given the central role that sleep plays in our lives and the number of adverse consequences that have been associated with sleep deprivation, one would think that we would have a clear understanding of why it is that we sleep. describes our awareness of internal and external stimuli. How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant to a state of hypnosis? Pain relief, euphoria, sleepiness. Adepressantis a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. In 2012, Kromann and Nielson reported on a case study of a 40-year-old woman who suffered significant ill effects from her use of caffeine. Weakness and fatigue. Complications. How does hypnosis work? Amphetamines have a mechanism of action quite similar to cocaine in that they block the reuptake of dopamine in addition to stimulating its release (Figure 4.16). While medical marijuana laws have been passed on a state-by-state basis, federal laws still classify this as an illicit substance, making conducting research on the potentially beneficial medicinal uses of marijuana problematic. . Heroin produces intense feelings of euphoria and pleasure, which are amplified when the heroin is injected intravenously. Insomnia, a consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep, is the most common of the sleep disorders. Why do we devote so much time to sleeping? Physiologically, the body can become addicted to opiate drugs in less than a week, including when taken as prescribed. This becomes a self-perpetuating cycle because increased anxiety leads to increased arousal, and higher levels of arousal make the prospect of falling asleep even more unlikely. Diarrhea. (a) This is a statue of a meditating Buddha, representing one of the many religious traditions of which meditation plays a part. The researchers showed that these states correspond to distinct strategies, and then they identified . Nicotine is most commonly used in the form of tobacco products like cigarettes or chewing tobacco; therefore, there is a tremendous interest in developing effective smoking cessation techniques. This is an important factor because we can develop tolerance and experience withdrawal from any number of drugs that we do not abuse. Feeling tired. The pons is important for regulating rapid eye movement (REM) sleep (National Institutes of Health, n.d.). However, when a stimulant drug was used in conjunction with a popular antidepressant, her condition improved dramatically. (credit a: modification of work by Jim Epler; credit b: modification of work by Caleb Roenigk), video about circadian rhythms and how they affect sleep, video that gives sleep tips for college students, video about the relationship between sleep and memory, instructional video about using Buddhist meditation techniques to alleviate stress, video about the results of a brain imaging study in individuals who underwent specific mindfulness meditative techniques, https://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, Cocaine, amphetamines (including some ADHD medications such as Adderall), methamphetamines, MDMA (Ecstasy or Molly), Increased heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. However, alternative treatment options are being explored because consistent compliance by users of CPAP devices is a problem. Confusion. Narcolepsy is associated with reduced levels of the signaling molecule hypocretin in some areas of the brain (De la Herrn-Arita & Drucker-Coln, 2012; Han, 2012), and the traditional stimulant drugs do not have direct effects on this system. We spend approximately one-third of our lives sleeping. Asleep spindleis a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory (Fogel & Smith, 2011; Poe, Walsh, & Bjorness, 2010). Inflammation has many causes, including infections, injuries, and diseases. Physical dependenceinvolves changes in normal bodily functionsthe user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use. Medical marijuana is marijuana that is prescribed by a doctor for the treatment of a health condition. Thepineal gland, an endocrine structure located inside the brain that releases melatonin, is thought to be involved in the regulation of various biological rhythms and of the immune system during sleep (Hardeland, Pandi-Perumal, & Cardinali, 2006). They can be helpful for people working night shifts or for people affected by seasonal variations in light. The three types of sleep apnea are central apnea, obstructive apnea (OSA), and a mixture of central and obstructive apnea. In 2013, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommended tighter controls on their medical use. In addition to withdrawal, many individuals who are diagnosed with substance use disorders will also develop tolerance to these substances. He suffered from no apparent anatomical brain anomalies or psychological disorders. Yarmila Falaters body was found in the familys pool with 44 stab wounds. c. Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction. Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. There may also be differences in both brain structure and function in infants that die from SIDS (Berkowitz, 2012; Mage & Donner, 2006; Thach, 2005). Rotating shift work has pervasive effects on the lives and experiences of individuals engaged in that kind of work, which is clearly illustrated in stories reported in a qualitative study that researched the experiences of middle-aged nurses who worked rotating shifts (West, Boughton & Byrnes, 2009). Beyond being awake or asleep, there are many other states of consciousness people experience. This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons disease. People vary in terms of their ability to be hypnotized, but a review of available research suggests that most people are at least moderately hypnotizable (Kihlstrom, 2013). I was really sleepy and having trouble concentrating. Thecollective unconscious, as described byJung, is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone. Tolerance can cause the user to increase the amount of drug used to a dangerous leveleven to the point of overdose and death. This campaign is sponsored in part by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Interestingly, since the advent of electric light, the amount of sleep that people get has declined. Drug use disorders are addictive disorders, and the criteria for specific substance (drug) use disorders are described in DSM-5. d. both b and c. 2. Heavy meals may make you sleepy, but they can also lead to frequent awakenings due to gastric distress. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? You don't have to be a psychologist to know that conditions like hunger or fatigue have an impact on thinking and decision-making; these are examples of internal states. Sleep deprivation, in general, is associated with a number of negative consequences (Brown, 2012). Psychometric analysis indicates that the ISS is composed of four principle components, producing four subscales. Like hypnosis, meditation also shows promise in stress management, sleep quality (Caldwell, Harrison, Adams, Quin, & Greeson, 2010), treatment of mood and anxiety disorders (Chen et al., 2013; Freeman et al., 2010; Vllestad, Nielsen, & Nielsen, 2012), and pain management (Reiner, Tibi, & Lipsitz, 2013). People who suffer from insomnia might limit their use of stimulant drugs (such as caffeine) or increase their amount of physical exercise during the day. It is possible that even the processing of emotional information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009). The first three stages of sleep are NREM sleep, while the fourth and final stage of sleep is REM sleep. You were capable of engaging in the all of the complex tasks involved with operating a motor vehicle even though you were not aware of doing so. As a result, many scientists have urged the federal government to allow for relaxation of current marijuana laws and classifications in order to facilitate a more widespread study of the drugs effects (Aggarwal et al., 2009; Bostwick, 2012; Kogan & Mechoulam, 2007). Unlike Freud and Jung, Cartwrights ideas about dreaming have found empirical support. Sleep is not a uniform state of being. That is why individuals suffering from sleep deprivation can also put themselves and others at risk when they put themselves behind the wheel of a car or work with dangerous machinery. (credit a: modification of work by Todd Huffman), Psychedelic images like this are often associated with hallucinogenic compounds. As you will learn when you study social roles, peoples behavior can be shaped by their expectations of how they should act in a given situation. While cognitive deficits may be the most obvious, many body systems are negatively impacted by lack of sleep. There are now several synthetic versions of opiate drugs (correctly called opioids) that have very potent painkilling effects, and they are often abused. Participants were told they would not feel pain, but they could press a button if they did; while they reported not feeling pain, they did, in fact, press the button, suggesting a dissociation of consciousness while in the hypnotic state (Hilgard & Hilgard, 1994). a - a mole that looks cancerous. Recently, a new EPAP (expiratory positive air pressure) device has shown promise in double-blind trials as one such alternative (Berry, Kryger, & Massie, 2011). Whether lark, owl, or somewhere in between, there are situations in which a persons circadian clock gets out of synchrony with the external environment. Insudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies. Medical marijuana is legal in over half of the United States and in the District of Columbia (Figure 4.19). In such instances, REM rebound may actually represent an adaptive response to stress in non-depressed individuals by suppressing the emotional salience of aversive events that occurred in wakefulness (Suchecki, Tiba, & Machado, 2012). For one, research suggests that infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep, and their cribs should not contain any items which pose suffocation threats, such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions that cover the bars of a crib). In our discussion of the mental symptoms I reported as an illustration of the suggestive treatment of the drug passion the case of a morphinist.